Uncategorized 06:04
KINA SADHAI DRINK LAI GHAJAL MA THAU DINE
KINA SADHAI DRINK LAI HIRDAYA MA NAU DINE
MANCHHE HO AAKHIR MA MISTAKE TA BHAIHALCHHA
KINA SADHAI DRINK LAI BISWAS KO GAU DINE
SANSAR KO CHAKRA NAI HO HAR JEET TA BHAIHALCHHA
KINA SADHAI DRINK LAI MUTU KO TYO GHAU DINE
KE CHHA KHAI NASA MA TYO PIDA LAI LUKAUNE?
KINA SADHAI DRINK LAI NACHAHIDO BHAU DINE
Uncategorized 06:04
Slide1
Does greater species diversity lead to greater stability in ecosystems?
Viewpoint: Yes, greater species diversity does lead to greater stability in ecosystems.
Viewpoint: No, ecosystem stability may provide a foundation upon which diversity can thrive, but increased species diversity does not confer ecosystem stability.
Slide 2
Does greater species diversity lead to greater stability in ecosystems?
Conclusions
the question of what makes system stable remains largely unanswered
Doak et al (1998) Diversity correlated with stability of biomass simply due to emergent statistical properties. The relationship would arise even in the absence of any ecological relationships due to the probablistic outcomes of “averaging” the independent biomass fluctuations of numerous species
Slide 3
Does greater species diversity lead to greater stability in ecosystems?
Conclusions
The Current Thinking: Controversy is not over, but most lean toward this:
• Diversity gives rise to stability (dynamic) BUT diversity is not the driving force of the relationship
• The cause is the increased ability of more diverse communities to exhibit differential responses to change
• communities are structured by weak interactions, which prevents large
fluctuations in the face of perturbation. As # spp decreases, the average interaction strength increases, and the probability of de-stabilization increases..
slide 4
Does greater species diversity lead to greater stability in ecosystems?
Conclusions
1. Diversity enhances community stability and decreases stability of populations of individual species (supports May’s (1973) model results).
2. Diversity had stronger effect on RESISTANCE than on RESILIENCE
3. Why the diversity-stability relationship?
a) species vary in their resistance to perturbation
b) species compete for resources – when one declines due to perturbation another compensates by increasing (competitive release)
slide 5
Biotic Succession
tEcological succession
predicable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community
Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe windthrow, logging) of an existing community
Slide6
primary succession
process that begins in areas where no soil is initially present
secondary succession
process that begins in areas where soil is already present
slide 7
Natural vegetation of a particular location evolves in a sequence of steps involving different plant communities.
The evolutionary process is known as plant succession.
Plant succession usually begins with a fairly simple community known as a pioneer community.
Slide 8
About mount st Helen
Mount St. Helens the day before the 1980 eruption, which removed much of the northern face of the mountain, leaving a large crater
sLide 9
The entire process of succession is given as follows:
1.Nudation: It can be defined as the development of bare area without any form of life. Under this we have:
Topographic
Climatic
Biotic
2. Invasion: Successful establishment of species in a bare area. Under it we have:
Migration (dispersal)
Ecesis (establishment)
Aggregation (colonization)
3. Competition and coaction.
4. Reaction stabilization.
Slide 10
Types Of Succession
Based on the different criteria ecological succession may be of the following types:
1. Primary Succession: If an area in any of the basic environments is colonized by organisms for the first time, the succession is called Primary Succession.
2. Secondary Succession: If an area under colonization is cleared by whatsoever agency of the previous plants it is called Secondary Succession.
3. Autogenic Succession: After the succession has begun in most of the cases, it is the community itself which as a result of its reactions with the environments, modifies its own environment and thus causing its own replacement by new communities. This course of succession is known as Autogenic Succession. (drying up of a pond)
Slide 11
Types Of Succession
4. Allogenic Succession: in some cases replacement of one community by another is largely due to forces other than the effects of communities on the environment. This is called Allogenic succession and it may occur in a highly disturbed or eroded area, or in ponds where nutrients and pollutants enter from outside and modify the environment and in turn the communities.
5. Autotrophic Succession: It is characterized by the early and continued dominance of autotrophic organisms like green plants. It begins in a predominantly inorganic environment and the energy flow is maintained indefinitely. There is a gradual increase in organic matter content supported by the energy flow. (eutrophication)
6. Heterotrophic Succession: It is characterized by the early dominance of heterotrophs, such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and animals. It begins in a predominantly organic environment and there is a progressive decline in the energy content.
Slide 12
7. Retrogressive Succession: It means a return to simpler and less dense or even impoverished form of community from an advanced or climax community. In most cases the causes are Allogenic.
8. Induced Succession: Activities such as overgrazing, frequent scraping, shifting cultivation or industrial pollution may cause deterioration of an ecosystem. Agricultural practices are retrogression of a stable to a young state of man’s deliberate action.
9. Cyclic Succession: It is of local occurrence within a large community. Here cyclic refers to repeated occurrence of certain stages of succession whenever there is an open condition created within a large community.
Slide 13
The Major Points:
1. The species living in a particular place gradually change over time as does the physical and chemical environment within that area.
2. Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interact with and affect the environment within an area, gradually changing it.
Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set of environmental conditions. If these conditions change, then the existing species will be outcompeted by a different set of species which are better adapted to the new conditions
Slide 14
4. The most often quoted examples of succession deal with plant succession. It is worth remembering that as plant communities change, so will the associated micro-organism, fungus and animal species. Succession involves the whole community, not just the plants.
5. Change in the plant species present in an area is one of the driving forces behind changes in animal species. This is because each plant species will have associated animal species which feed on it. The presence of these herbivore species will then dictate which particular carnivores are present.
The structure or ‘architecture’ of the plant communities will also influence the animal species which can live in the microhabitats provided by the plants.
Slide 15
The Major Points:
7. Changes in plant species also alter the fungal species present because many fungi are associated with particular plants.
8. Succession is directional. Different stages in a particular habitat succession can usually be accurately predicted.
9. These stages, characterised by the presence of different communities, are known as seral stages.
Slide 16
10. Communities change gradually from one seral stage to another. The stages are not totally distinct from each other and one will tend to merge gradually into another, finally ending up with a ‘climax’ community.
11. Succession will not go any further than the climax community. This is the final stage.
This does not however, imply that there will be no further change. When large organisms in the climax community, such as trees, die and fall down, then new openings are created in which secondary succession will occur.
12. Many thousands of different species might be involved in the community changes taking place over the course of a succession. For example, in the succession from freshwater to climax woodland.
Uncategorized 06:04
म रमाउन चाहन्थे, उनीहरु कमाउन। समयको परिबन्दमा म फँसेको थिए, बडेमानको कुर्सीमा उनीहरु बसेका थिए। म अनभिज्ञ थिएँ उनीहरुलाई ज्ञान रहेछ। मेरो व्यथा, पीरमर्कामा डलर फल्दो रहेछ। म आगो हुँदा उनीहरु पानी भए, मैले दुःख पाउदा उनीहरु दानी भए। र पनि मलाई अत्यास लाग्यो। गाउँको कुनामा छि छि, च.च. र हाइ हाईको पात्र अनि सहरको कन्टेनरमा गरेको सत्र। अझ कताको यो गगनचुम्बी महल, मुसा चल्ला दरवार भनेको त सुनेथेँ तर यथार्थ मैमा आइपर्यो। हिनताबोध भयो त्यसैले त कुर्कुच्चा ठोकें। लाग्यो कुकुरलाई घिउ पच्दैन भनेको यही हो। रातभर सोचेँ, केवल सोचेँमात्र। के थाहा भोलि घुम्ने मेचमा पो बस्न पाइन्छ कि। बाबाले नमर्दै भन्नुहुन्थ्यो छोरा ठूलो भएर कहिले पढ्ला र हाकिम होला। झल्याँस्स भएँ म, उठ् नरे। यही हो बाबाको सपना पूरा गर्ने उत्तम क्षण। लाग्यो हो पनि। पढ्न पाए हाकिम होइन्छ अनि सबैले मान्छन्। यसो त आमाले पनि कोसिस नगरेकी होइनन् मलाई पढाउन, दोष त जवानी कै हो। आमालाई टौघाटका लर्के जवानले उडाएपछि मेरो पढाइले बिट मार्यो। आफन्तमा अट्न नसके कारण म कन्टेनरमा लहरिएँ। मौकाले साँच्चै ढोकैमा ढक्ढक् गर्दोरहेछ। म सिल्ली। ढोकामा किन चुकुल लगाएँ। कता कता फर्कूँ फर्कूँ लाग्यो। समाजको सपनालाई मूर्ख रुप दिन फर्कें।
मेरो आँसूको मोल रहेछ, तौले, मोले अनि गए। ओजन कै भएन नहोला, भरिदिएछ डलरले झोला। म पढ्न चाहन्थे लड्न वा सड्न होइन्। समाज बुझ्ने अवसर खोज्थें अनि भावना केलाउन। न मैले कसैलाई अब हृदयबाट बा भनेर बोलाउन पाउँछु न त आमा भनेर नै। बोलाउनु छ त सुन्दर सपनाको कल्पना, बाहेक यथार्थ मलाई अब असम्भव छ। त्यही रिस पोख्न चाहन्थे म किताब र कलमलाई। कुनै पनि पाना मेरो लागि बिरानो नबनोस्, कलमले मसीको पूर्णाताको ख्याल कहिल्यै नपाओस्। केही नपाए म कोर्छु, सुन्दर सपना कोर्छु, भविष्य कोर्छु, समाज कोर्छु अनि कोर्छु खानाका कालहरु, राक्षसका आँखा कोछु अनि कोर्छु कलमकै सहायताले तरकर चलि नै रहनुपर्छ, चलि नै रहनुपर्छ। हो, यस्तै यस्तै त हुन्थे मेल कसैको त भएर बाँच्न कठिन हुनेकुरा बुझन थालेथे। विकासको सुन्दर गोरेटोमा सृजनाको कोमल पाइला कति सुन्दर अनि हृदयस्पर्शी। हो, म यही सपना बुन्न जुनको सहायता लिने गर्न थालेथे। मलाई के थाहा, मेरो मन उम्लदा उनीहरुको भाडो तात्दो रहेछ। मैले बुझ्ने भएर फाइदा त मलाई होला तर तिनीहरुले सुकुल ओड्न पर्ने पनि रहेछ। पोको भएर आउँदो रहेछ, फोको भएर जाँदोरहेछ। म उत्तम हुन चाहन्थे उनीहरु खुट्टा समात्न तम्सिए। म चट्याङ चड्काउन खोज्थे , उनीहरु मेरो सपना भत्काउन खोज्थे। कसैको कारणा म बाचिदिनाले मेरो कारणा धेरै बाचेका रहेछन्। म कन्दोरबाट माथि उठ्दा उनीहरुले सगरमाथा छुन खोज्दा रहेछन्। मेरो हैन मैले सेवा गर्दोरहेछु। त्यसैले त होला हो, मलाई तिनीहरुले सिंगामरमरको पातल अनि झिलिमिली आकाशमा लगे। एउटा सुन्दर स्वर्ग, नजिकै पातल टेक्दै शिरमाथीको आकाश छौं छौं लाग्ने कस्तो मनोरम कस्तो माधूर्यता अनि प्रखर औडा गर्मीमा शितलपन, छालामा काडा नै उम्रने। मलाई त्यस्तो सौखिन अलौकिक स्वर्गमा लगे। लामखुट्टेलाई म अक्क न बक्क परेथे, हो अक्क न बक्क।
सपनीमा झल्याँस्स भएर यथार्थ केलाउन थाले झै लाग्यो मलाई। रुख चढाएर फेदमा किन बन्चरी? काटिपनि हाल्दैनन्, बन्चरो हटाउँदा पनि हटाउदैनन्। मलाई ओर्लन आत्माले गाली गर्छ माथि चढ्न स्वाभिमानले बाटो छेक्छ। खूवाउनु नै आखिर छ, थियो भने क्षणिक या भनौ कृत्रिम हाँसोको प्रपञ्च किन? रुखको टूप्पामा फल छ, हो त्यही फल टिप्न म चाहन्छु। तर विवशता, न फेदमा रहेर लाटाले केरा हेरेझै फललाई हेरिरहन नै पाए न त जोश, जाँगर, हौसला अनि उत्साहको खिचडीमा फल मिसाउन पाए म त आखिर खोरन्डो पो भएछु । बसेथें, उठ् भने। विस्तारै उठ्दै दुइवटै खुट्टा टेक्दै थिए एउटामा सधैं प्रहार। कहिल्यै गतिलोसंग उभिन नपाइने झै पो लाग्यो मलाई। एक मन लाग्यो यही हो बाबाआमाको अभाव। सिंगमरमरको स्वर्गीय आनन्द पाए पनि सक्षमता पाइन, यदि बाबाआमाको काखमा हुँदो हुँ त झोपडिमा भएपनि इच्छाशक्तिले हाँस्न पाउथें, थोरै भएपनि सक्षमताको आखिझयाल नियाल्न पाउथें। मलाई दुःख लाग्छ मेरा कोही छैनन्। तलको हाइहाइमा रुख चढें।
माथिकाले उज्जल नक्षत्र देखाउदै हात थामिदिए। अर्धभागको यात्रा नै धौ धौ लाग्यो। तलकाले भविष्य देखेका छन् माथिकाले पनि। मेरो सफलता तलका लागि सुन्दर समाज निर्माणा गर्ने उर्जा हो भने मा निमित्त करतुत र यर्थाथको बाकसको चाबी। चढें खोल्ला भन्ने र नउडला भन्ने डर त्यसैले न हो मेरो अवस्था जहिल्यै पचास जहित साठी। सत्तरी कट्न पाउदैन , तीसमा कहिल्यै आउँदैन।
सरकारले म बस्ने महलको अनुगमन गर्छ रे, थैली हेर्छ रे बाकस रे। हो र खै मलाई त पत्तो छैन्। सरकारपट्टीको भनेर एक एकजना चप्पल प्याट प्याट बजाउदै आएको थियो जादा बाइक चढेर अर्को वर्ष त्यही बाइकमा हाँस्दै आयो, हाम्रो समेत भागको पुलाउ खायो अनि कार चढेर उता लाग्यो। अब के को पालो हो, कस्को पात हो। म त उसैलाई कुर्दै बस्छु। दान पनि पाइने मान पनि पाइने अनि शान पनि पाइने। सबैले नमस्ते गरिहाल्छन्, पोल्टामा पुरस्कार वेरी एकवारको जुनीमा समाजसेवा पनि गरेस् है छोरा भनेर हजुरवुवाले त भन्नुभएको थियो, बाबाले खै के गर्नुभयो तर म चाहि अब अब समाजसेवा गरेरै छाड्छु। सडकका बालबालिका गन्दिन्छु, यति छन उती छन् भन्दिन्छु। लेखेकै भरमा महल भैहाल्छ, उ आउदै आउदैन पनि दुइ चार दिनमै गइहाल्छ। भाइ मास्टर बन्छ, भिनाजु अकाउन्ट लेखापाल, पत्रिकामा आवश्यक्ता छाप्दै आफन्तलाई राखिदिन्छु मलाई कल अब गर्छु डलरको सहायताले समाजको कमाल उस्तै परे मोडलिङको बोलाइदिम्ला राजेश हमाल। कसो, मेरो समाजसेवाले गोरखा बाहु नपाउने सम्भावना अब कतै रहला र?
एउटी राम्री थिइ, ऊ हाम्री थिइ। बाबा भैदिएको भए बुहारी सम्बोधन गर्नुहुन्थ्यो होला, आमाले पनि। भाइले भाउजू भन्छ, विश्वास त मलाई हिजो पनि थियो। उनको मुखबाट मेरी भन्दै मेरी बहिनीको परिचय दिँदा मलाई गर्व लाग्थ्यो तर सबै कति निष्ठूर रहेछ लहैलहैमा खुट्टा कमाउने भएछ त्यसैले त हो अरे, होरेसँग पोइला गएछ। धिक्कार छ। आफैंले आफैंलाई पिटें। मेरो लक्ष्य त्यागें झै लाग्यो। मैले त अनाथालय खोल्नु छ, वृद्धाश्रम खोल्नु छ, एड्स पीडितलाई पुनर्स्थापन केन्द्र खोल्नु छ, वृत्तचित्र बनाउनु छ अनि, अनि पुरस्कार पाउनु छ। थाल नरे थाल। अब आफैं एक अनाथ, गणाना आफैबाट सुरुवात गर्दा कसो होला। एउटा कोठामा बसिरहेकैं छु, केहि दान नपाउन्जेल त्यसैलाई आश्रम ले चिन्नुपर्ला, दान आउछ तय स्वर्गिय महान किन्नुपर्ला। कसो प्रभु? सह पाउँछु नि। म पनि तपाईकै सन्तान हुँ कमाउन मन छ, कारणा हयाणडल समाउन मन छ, गोरखा दक्षिणा वाहुमा रमाउन मन छ। चाँडै सपना साकार वेस्। कोही छौं कहि भने आउ है, दिने धेरै आओ, लिने थोरै आओ, क्षणामै जाओ। कमाउने आओ, रमाउने आओ, हसाउने आओ , रुवाउने आओ। जो जो छौ जहातहा एकाएक आओ मैले गणाना थालिसके। तिमी आउदै गर, नाम टिपाउदै गर जति नम्बरमा पर्छ त्यसै अनुसार पेट भर। म चाहि समाजसेवी अनि अनाथ पनि। त्यसैले त म भए अनाथ नं. १, अनाथ नं.को क्रमविस्तार गर्दै गर्नुहोस।
Uncategorized 06:04
Load shedding refers to the deliberate shutdown of electric power in a part or parts of a power-distribution system, generally to prevent overloading. It is the failure of the entire system when the demand strains the capacity of the system. Cutting off the electric current for certain period is also known as load shedding. On certain lines load shedding occurs when the demand becomes greater than the supply. It is the act or practice of temporarily reducing the load shedding also known as power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area. It is a procedure in which parts of an electric power system are disconnected in an attempt to prevent failure of the entire system due to overloading.
There are various causes of load shedding. It caused by insufficient available resources to meet prevailing demand for electricity. Load shedding, is an intentionally-engineered electrical power outage. They are usually in response to a situation where the demand for electricity exceeds the power supply capability of the network. Load shedding generally result from two causes: insufficient generation capacity or inadequate transmission infrastructure to deliver sufficient power to the area where it is needed. Kathmandu, faced with an influx of rural migrants and rising energy demands, faces load-shedding even during the monsoon when the rains fill the water reservoirs where electricity is generated. During the dry winter months, electricity was cut up to sixteen hours per day, leading to disruption of the economy. In the rest of the country, electrification has occurred patchily, although in some small villages a small hydropower project set up locally may function more reliably than the power supply of the capital city. Examples of these causes include, faults at power stations, damage to power lines, substations or other parts of the distribution system, a short circuit, or the overloading of electricity mains.
Load shedding is miserably destroying the life of people. Moreover, students are badly affected by this. The career of students is in dark but government isn’t paying serious attention to this sector. Neither the concerned departments are showing interest on this matter.
(About the writer: Samikshya Neupane is a Development studies student studying at National College. She is very interested in writing about the current happening around her. Her articles are far away from the politics.)
Uncategorized 06:04
• We cannot make someone love us. All we can do is be someone who can be loved. The rest is up to them.
• No matter how much we care, some people just don’t care back.
• It takes years to build up trust, and only seconds to destroy it.
• It’s not what we have in our life, but who we have in your life that counts.
• We shouldn’t compare our self to the best others can do, but to the best we can do.
Uncategorized 06:04
Lalitpur
Lalitpur, the city of fine arts lies across the Bagmati river south of the central Kathmandu valley. This city is commonly known as Yala or Patan.
The legend of the formation of this city is described in many ways. On of the most prominent legend is that there was once an ugly grass cutter who visited Mani Jogini in the valley to sell grass. One day, while he was cutting grass he felt extremely thirsty and went in search of water. He looked everywhere but could not find a single drop to drink. Finally, he found a tank and bathed and drank from it. When he came out of the water he had been transformed into a hansome man. He went to the city to sell his grass and there the king saw him. The king was surprised at his sudden transformation and named him Lalit, which means “beautiful”. The king thought to build a memorial on the spot where the miracle took place. However, he could not find a suitable name for it. Later a voice in a dream advised him to call it Lalit Patan and asked him to build a city around it. The next morning the king sent Lalit across the Bagmati River with a vast sum of money and ordered him to build a city named Lalitpur.
According to a very old Kirat chronicle, Prem Bahadur subba in his research says Patan was founded by Kirati rulers. According to him the earliest known capital was most possibly shifted from Thankot to Patan after the Kirati King Yalamber came into power sometime around second century A.D.Hence, it is said that King Yalamber named this city after himself as Yala.
At present the city is divided into 22 municipal wards and is inhabited by almost 2 Lakhs people. An active population of the city is engaged in various trades, specially in traditional handicrafts and cottage industries. Lalitpur is only town in entire Nepal that has poduced the higest number of most talented artists and finest craftsmen ever recorded in Nepalese art history. The most famous artists like Arniko , Abhay Raj and Siddhi Raj were all born here.
(About the author: Niroj Maharjan is a Development studies student studing at National College. He is very interested in the ancient cultures and heritages. The information mentioned in his articles are mostly based on the myth but this does not mean that they are friction.)
Uncategorized 06:04
Nepal vows to fight threats posed by climate change after concluding historic high-altitude meet
The historic cabinet meeting at Kalapatthar plateau near Everest Base Camp (5,242 meters) in the foothills of Mt Everest has concluded by issuing a 10-point “Everest declaration” which calls for concerted actions to minimize adverse effects of climate change in the Himalayan region.
Informing about the decision of the cabinet meeting at a press meet organized in Syangboche (3,780 m) after returning from Kalapatthar, Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal said that through the Everest declaration Nepal wants to express its commitment to fight the threats posed by global climate change and show areas of cooperation to follow for this noble purpose.
The meeting held for around 20 minutes also declared Banke National Park as new national park and Api-Nampa and Gauri-Shankar as conservation areas.
In the 10-point declaration, Nepal has expressed commitment to work together with the international community to mitigate the threats of climate change to the entire human civilization including the world’s fragile bio-diversity, heritages and for sustainable socio-economic and cultural development of mankind.
He said the Himalayan region which boasts of Mt Everest, the world’s tallest peak, including the majestic 2,700 kilometer-long mountain range, has a special significance for the socio-economic and cultural development of 1.3 billion people living in the region including maintaining the global environmental balance.
“But the world-wide climate change patterns of recent years has started to negatively affect the Himalayas and the people living in this region, their socio-economic development, biological diversity and other sectors, ” he said, adding that as a result of which the risks of floods, landslides, glacier outbursts, drought, deforestation and other natural calamities have greatly increased.
He said the adverse effects of climate change is not only being seen in the areas near to Himalayan region, but in the whole of South Asia including the ecology of the whole world.
“Due to global climate change and its effects, the entire human civilization is faced with additional challenges for their survival,” PM Nepal claimed.
PM Nepal said that Government of Nepal has from the past many decades been expressing bilateral and multilateral commitments for sustainable development and environmental protection knowing that conserving and protecting planet Earth, our shared home, is not only in the interest of us but our future generations too.
Twenty-four cabinet ministers, including PM Nepal, had flown to Kalapatthar at 9:20 am on Friday to hold the historic cabinet meeting set in the backdrop of the majestic Himalayas, including Mt. Everest, the world’s highest mountain.
A rescue team led by Usha Gurung along with six doctors and a team of mountaineers accompanied the ministerial team for this historic event.
Speaking to media-persons before the ministerial team was air-lifted to Kalapathhar, Minister for Forest and Soil Conservation Dipak Bohora had said that the government is holding the cabinet meeting to draw the attention of the world to the threats of climate change in the Himalayas and the people living in the region.
State-owned Nepal Television broadcast the special event live from Syangboche.
The ministerial team had reached Lukla Airport in Solukhumbu district on Thursday to take part in the historic meeting. -nepalnews.com
Uncategorized 06:04
The 22nd World AIDS Day is being observed in Nepal along with many other countries in the world by organising various programmes on the theme “Universal Access and Human Rights”, Tuesday.
First observed on December 1, 1988, the World AIDS Day is being observed every year on the same day since then.
Issuing a message on the occasion of the World AIDS Day, Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal urged all stake holders to launch extensive awareness programmes to control HIV from spreading further.
PM Nepal said in his statement, the chances of spreading HIV in Nepal is high as many of the infected persons are unaware as they have not gone through blood tests due to poverty and lack of awareness.
Although, government statistics shows the number of HIV infected in Nepal only at about 15000, organisations working in this sector have say as many as 70,000 persons could have contracted HIV.
On the eve of World AIDS Day Monday evening, Maiti Nepal, an organisation working against women and children trafficking, organised a candle light prayer meeting in memory of those killed due to AIDS in Kathmandu. -nepalnews.com
Uncategorized Poem 06:04
The Hug!
It’s wonderous what a hug can do.
A hug can cheer you when you’re blue.
A hug can say, “I love you so,”
Or, “Gee, I hate to see you go.”
A hug is, “Welcome back again.”
And, “Great to see you! Where’ve you been?”
A hug can soothe a small childs pain,
and bring a rainbow after rain.
The hug! There’s just no doubt about it-
we scarcely could survive without it!
A hug delights and warms and charms.
It must be why God gave us arms.
A hug can break the language barrier,
and make your travels so much merrier.
No need to fret about your store of ‘em,
the more you give, the more there’s more of ‘em.
So stretch those arms without delay
and give someone a hug today!
-Author Unknown-
Uncategorized 06:04
Biography
Jean Jacques Rousseau was born at Geneva, on the 28th of June, 1712. Rousseau’s mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, the daughter of a Calvinist preacher, died of birth complications nine days after his birth. His father, Isaac Rousseau, was a watchmaker who was well educated and a lover of music. Rousseau was descended from a Parisian family who had settled there since 1554. The family was obliged to leave Geneva because of the consequence of a quarrel between his father and the captain of a French army. In early days Rousseau and his older brother François were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne and his uncle Bernard.
Rousseau had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was five or six his father encouraged his love of reading. He had mentioned this incident in his autobiography, the confession as:
Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [i.e., adventure stories], which had been my mother’s. My father’s design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until at the conclusion of a volume. Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, “Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art.”
Rousseau’s parents had a love marriage. His father loved his mother very much. But he was unable to get the love of his mother. This made him feel very unfortunate. Same happened to the father too. He had described the loss in the confession as:
“I was the unfortunate fruit of this return, being born ten months after, in a very weakly and infirm state; my birth cost my mother her life, and was the first of my misfortunes. I am ignorant how my father supported her loss at that time, but I know he was ever after inconsolable. In me he still thought he saw her he so tenderly lamented, but could never forget that I had been the innocent cause of his misfortune, nor did he over embrace me, but his sighs, the convulsive pressure of his arms, witnessed that a bitter regret mingled itself with his caresses, though, as may be supposed, they were not on this account less ardent. When he said to me, “Jean Jacques, let us talk of your mother,” my usual reply was, “Yes, father, but then, you know, we shall cry,” and immediately the tears started from his eyes. “Ah!” exclaimed he, with agitation, “Give me back my wife; at least console me for her loss; fill up, dear boy, the void she has left in my soul. Could I love thee thus wert thou only my son?” Forty years after this loss he expired in the arms of a second wife, but the name of the first still vibrated on his lips, still was her image engraved on his heart.”
When Rousseau was ten, his father got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands he had been caught trespassing. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau’s aunt Suzanne with him. In Nyon his father remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him. He then remained under the care of his uncle Bernard, who was at the time employed upon the fortifications of Geneva. Rousseau was sent to by his uncle, together with his cousin Abraham, to be educated at the house of a Protestant minister named Lambercier in Bossey. Here the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister.
At the beginning everything was fine. Mademoiselle Lambercier had the affection of a mother for the two brothers. She also exercised the authority like that of a mother. Sometimes she used to punish the two brothers when they deserved it. This all was going on happily, but having been unjustly accused of breaking a comb, Rousseau became restless and dissatisfied. So at the age fifteen he ran away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728). But after returning to the city and he found the city gates locked due to the curfew. At that time he took shelter with a Roman Catholic priest, who introduced him to Françoise-Louise de Warens, age 29. She was a noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband. As professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turin, the capital of Savoy (now a place in Italy), to complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism in order to regain it.
In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to the severity of Calvinism’s insistence on the total depravity of man. De Warens was attracted to Catholicism’s doctrine of forgiveness of sins. During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his “maman”. Flattered by his devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest. When Rousseau reached twenty De Warens took him as her lover, whilst intimate also with the steward of her house. The sexual aspect of their relationship confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable, but he always considered De Warens the greatest love of his life. A rather profligate spender, she had a large library and loved to entertain and listen to music. She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy, introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas. Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his twenties, which were marked by long bouts of hypochondria, he applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music. At twenty-five, he came into a small inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay De Warens for her financial support of him. At twenty-seven he took a job as a tutor in Lyon.
So far in his teenage days, he found himself on his own. He was far from his father and his uncle so he had to work hard for the living. Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor.
From 1743 to 1744 Rousseau had an honorable but ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue, the French ambassador to Venice. This awoke in him a life-long love for Italian music, particularly opera. In this regard Rousseau in his Confession says:
“I had brought with me from Paris the prejudice of that city against Italian music; but I had also received from nature a sensibility and niceness of distinction which prejudice cannot withstand. I soon contracted that passion for Italian music with which it inspires all those who are capable of feeling its excellence. In listening to barcaroles, I found I had not yet known what singing was… “
After eleven months Rousseau quit from there, taking from the experience a profound distrust of government bureaucracy. His staffs conspired against him. He then moved to Paris.
After Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended and became the lover of Thérèse Levasseur, a pretty seamstress who was the sole support of her termagant mother and numerous ne’er-do-well siblings. At first they did not live together, though later Rousseau took Thérèse and her mother in to live with him as his servants, and he assumed the burden of supporting her large family. According to his Confessions, before she moved in with him, Thérèse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no independent for this number). Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thérèse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake of her “honor”. “Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she [Thérèse] allowed herself to be overcome” (Confessions). The foundling hospitals had been started as a reform to save the numerous infants who were being abandoned in the streets of Paris. Infant mortality at that date was extremely high — some fifty percent, in large part because families sent their infants to be wet nursed. The mortality rate in the foundling hospitals, which also sent the babies out to be wet nursed, proved worse, however, and most of the infants sent there likely perished. Ten years later Rousseau made inquiries about the fate of his son, but no record could be found. When Rousseau subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by his critics, including Voltaire and Edmund Burke, as the basis for ad hominem attacks. In an irony of fate, Rousseau’s later injunction to women to breastfeed their own babies (as had previously been recommended by the French natural scientist Buffon), probably saved the lives of thousands of infants.
While in Paris, Rousseau became a close friend of French philosopher Diderot. Rousseau’s ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases through conversations with Diderot. In 1749 Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot. He contributed numerous articles to Diderot and D’Alembert’s great Encyclopédie. Diderot’s articles brought a huge annoyance in France. He was sent into the prison for his opinions in his book “Lettre sur les aveugles”. Rousseau at the time thought that Diderot would be in prison for the rest of his life. He was so sad for Diderot’s imprisonment. In this regard, Rousseau in his Confession explains his emotions as:
“It is Impossible to describe the anguish which my friend’s misfortune caused me. My melancholy imagination, which always exaggerates misfortune, became alarmed. I thought that he would be imprisoned for the rest of his life; I nearly went mad at the idea. I wrote to Madame de Pompadour, entreating her to produce his release, or to get him imprisoned with him. But I received no answer to my letter, it was too unreasonable to produce any effect, and I cannot flatter myself that it contributed to the subsequent alleviation of the hardships of poor Diderot’s confinement. Had its severity continued without relaxation, I believe that I should have died of despair at the foot of this accursed donjon.”
In 1750, Rousseau read out an essay competition sponsored by the Académie de Dijon to be published in the Mercure de France on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. He wrote that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature. Diderot helped him very much in his essay. Rousseau’s “Discourse on the Arts and Sciences”, in which he made that argument, was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame.
Rousseau continued his interest in music, and his opera Le Devin du Village (The Village Soothsayer) was performed for King Louis XV in 1752. The king was so pleased by the work that he offered Rousseau a life-long pension. To the great expectation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor, bringing him notoriety as “the man who had refused a king’s pension.” He also turned down several other advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him problems.
On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to Calvinism and regained his official Genevan citizenship. In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality among Men (the Discourse on Inequality), which elaborated on the arguments of the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences.
Rousseau’s epistolary novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse , which was based on memories of his relationship with Mme de Warens and his romantic attachment with the twenty-five-year old Sophie d’Houdeto was published in 1761. Sophie was the cousin and house guest of Rousseau’s patroness and landlady Madame d’Epinay. The epistolary novel gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d’Epinay; her lover, the philologist Grimm; and their mutual friend, Diderot. Diderot took the side against Rousseau.
Diderot later described Rousseau as being, “false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked … He sucked ideas from me, used them himself, and then affected to despise me”. (Wikipedia.“Jean-Jacques Rousseau”. 16 Nov. 2009.<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau)
Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was published in 1761. The novel was a immense success. The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau published Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique (in English, literally Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right) in April and then Emile: or, On Education in May. The final section of Émile, "The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar," was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. It rejected original sin and divine revelation, so both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense. Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they have been brought up. This religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva. He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his books were burned, and warrants were issued for his arrest.
British philosopher David Hume who was very sympathetic to Rousseau wrote 'has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots was in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country … as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous.'
(Wikipedia.“Jean-Jacques Rousseau”. 16 Nov. 2009.<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau)
Within a month Rousseau had to leave France for Switzerland – but was unable to go to Geneva after his citizenship was revoked as a result of the ban over the book. He ended up in Berne. In 1766 Jean-Jacques Rousseau went to England. He first went to Chiswick then Wootton Hall near Ashbourne in Derbyshire, and later to Hume's house in Buckingham Street, London. He was invited by David Hume. True to form he fell out with Hume, accusing him of disloyalty (not fairly!) and displaying all the symptoms of paranoia. In 1767 he returned to France under a false name (Renou), although he had to wait until to 1770 to return officially. A condition of his return was his agreement not to publish his work. He continued writing, completing his Confessions and beginning private readings of it in 1770. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was banned from doing this by the police in 1771 following complaints by former friends such as Diderot and Madame d'Epinay – who featured in the work. The book was eventually published after his death in 1782.
Although officially barred from entering France before 1770, Rousseau returned in 1767 under a false name. In 1768 he went through a marriage of sorts to whom he had always hitherto referred to as his "housekeeper". But actually she was a linen-maid. They had five children together, all of whom were left at the Paris orphanage. It was the marriages between Catholics and Protestants was illegal at that time. Such type of marriage was called Thérèse. Though she was illiterate, she had become a remarkably good cook, a hobby her husband shared.
In 1770 they were allowed to return to Paris. As a condition of his return he was not allowed to publish any books, but after completing his Confessions, Rousseau began private readings in 1771. At the request of Madame d'Epinay, who was anxious to protect her privacy, however, the police ordered him to stop. The Confessions was the only one which was partially published in 1782, four years after his death. All his subsequent works were to appear posthumously.
In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the Considerations on the Government of Poland, which was to be his last major political work. In 1776 he completed Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques and began work on the Reveries of the Solitary Walker. In order to support himself, he returned to copying music, spending his leisure time in the study of botany.
Rousseau's mental health was a matter of some concern for the rest of his life. There were significant periods when he found it difficult to be in the company of others, when he believed himself to be the focus of hostility and duplicity .It is a feeling probably compounded by the fact that there was some truth in this. He frequently acted 'oddly' with sudden changes of mood. These 'oscillations' led to situations where he falsely accused others and behaved with scant respect for their humanity. There was something about what, and the way, he wrote and how he acted with others that contributed to his being on the receiving end of strong, and sometimes malicious, attacks by people like Voltaire. The 'oscillations' could also open up 'another universe' in which he could see the world in a different and illuminating way
(Doyle Michele Erina and Smith K Mark (2007) ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseau on education’, the encyclopaedia of informal education. 16 Nov.2009.<http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htm. )
In 1778 he was in Ermenonville, just north of Paris, staying with the Marquis de Giradin. On July 2, following his usual early morning walk Jean-Jacques Rousseau died of apoplexy (a kind of hemorrhage). Some of his former friends claimed that he committed suicide Rousseau was initially buried at Ermenonville on the Ile des Peupliers, which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. Later, in 1794, his remains were moved to the Panthéon in Paris (formerly the Church of Sainte Geneviève. The Pantheon was used to house the bodies of key figures of the French Revolution.) His remains were placed close by those of Voltaire, who had died in the same year as him. His tomb was in the shape of a rustic temple, on which, in bas relief an arm reaches out, bearing the torch of liberty, evokes Rousseau's deep love of nature and of classical antiquity. In 1834, the Genevan government somewhat reluctantly erected a statue in his honor in Lake Geneva.
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